Blog Post #5: Privacy in the Digital Age: Balancing Innovation and Personal Freedom

Prior to watching the TED Talks posted for this weeks post, I mainly though privacy concerns involved social media companies collecting our data, and advertisers tracking our online behavior. However, the TED Talks by Nita Farahany, Cathrine Crump, Christopher Soghoian, and Juan Enriquez made me understand that privacy violations can be much broader than only social media activity. All of these TED Talks are aimed at drawing public attention to the dangers associated with violations of our privacy, which occur as a result of government policies, corporate actions and even our own use of the internet. 

One of the most eye opening talks was Nita Farahany's discussion on brain privacy. She explains that advances in neuroscience and artificial intelligence are making it possible to collect information directly

from the human brain using devices like EEG headsets.  Although the ability to use this technology can be useful for people as it helps them to monitor their state of heath and provides additional services, such as communication between disabled people or assistance with certain daily tasks. But, Farahany warns that they also create the possibility of governments, employers, or corporations gaining access to our thoughts, emotions and mental states. She argues that society may need a new right called "cognitive liberty" to protect our individual freedom of though and mental privacy. What disturbed me most was her warning that we may willingly give up access to our brain data in exchange for convenience, discounts, or workplace benefits. The idea that technology could someday reveal what we think before we choose to share it feels like a direct threat to personal freedom. 

Catherine Crump's TED Talk focused on another side of the privacy debate: government surveillance. Prior to watching her presentation, I had no idea of the amount of location data that is collected through technologies. Crump states that systems like Automatic License Plate Readers as well as other types of systems are recording the movements of ordinary people like myself, often storing information about where we drive, when we travel, and who we might be with. Crump points out that this type of information is extremely personal, and can reveal things about our every day lives. What makes this especially alarming is that much of this data is collected from people who have done nothing wrong to provoke this type of surveillance. Her presentation made me realize how easily our phones can turn every day activities into a permanent record that can be stored and analyzed for years. 

The TED Talk by Juan Enriquez approached privacy from a different perspective. Rather than focusing on government monitoring, he discussed how our own online behavior creates what he calls a "digital tattoo." Unlike a temporary mistake that might once have been forgotten, comments, photos, videos and social media posts can remain online forever. Enriquez argues that many people, especially younger generations, do not fully understand the long term consequences of what they post online. His message made me think about how quickly a single post can shape someone's reputation. Even if society becomes more accepting over time, digital content can spread far beyond its original audience and remain accessible for years.

Finally, Christopher Soghoian's TED Talk highlighted the importance of encryption and secure communication. He explains that modern communication networks are built with surveillance abilities in mind and argues that strong encryption is very important for protecting ordinary people from governments, hackers, criminals, ETC. One of the more intriguing points he makes is that there is no such thing as a "terrorist phone" or a "criminal laptop." The same exact technologies used by ordinary people are still used by everyone else including criminals, also making it clear that weaknesses built into communication systems can affect everyone. His presentation strengthened the idea that privacy and security are close knit. 

These issues affect me, my family and my friends because we rely on technology every day. We communicate daily through text messages, social media, navigate with GPS, shop online, and store personal information such as health data digitally. Most of all, we don't even stop to think about where any of this information is going and who may have access to it. The TED Talks made me realize that privacy is no longer just about protecting our personal information. It is also about protecting our movements, our communications, our reputations and potentially our thoughts. 

I believe our government should establish stronger privacy protection that keep up with the technological advancements. Companies should be required to clearly state and explain how they collect and use our data, as well as we should have more control over our personal information. At the same time, law enforcement and government agencies should be required to prevent the misuse of surveillance technologies. New types of technology shouldn't just be accepted just because they are available, society as a whole should consider how the misuse of technology affects individual rights and freedoms. 

There are also steps we can take ourselves. We can use stronger passwords, enable two factor authentications, review privacy settings, think carefully before posting online, and take advantage of encrypted communication tools. Most importantly, we need to stay informed. Privacy is no longer something that can be taken for granted in the digital age. 

After watching these TED Talks, I came away with a new understand of how fragile privacy has become. Whether it is governments tracking our movements, companies collecting our data, social media preserving our mistakes, or technology that may someday decode our thoughts, the threats to privacy are growing. The challenge for our generation will be finding a way to embrace technological innovation while protecting the freedoms and personal autonomy that makes privacy worth defending in the first place. 

Blog Post #4: Can a Machine Detect a Lie? The History, Impact and Controversy of the Polygraph

When most people hear the word "polygraph", the first thing that comes into mind are mostly related to crime shows, murder cases, or any other television show where a person is asked, "did you do it?" While the polygraph is typically known to the public as a "lie detector," its history and how it came to be the modern technology it is today is a lot more complex than most individuals realize. In fact, the polygraph was not originally invented to help aid in criminal cases. Over the past century, the polygraph has influenced criminal investigations, government employment, and public perceptions of truth. While also sparking continuous debates about science, privacy and ethics.  

From Medical Device to Lie Detector 

One of the most surprising facts I learned during my research is that the polygraph began as a medical device rather than a tool for criminal investigations. According to Theodora Burbank in The Origins of the Polygraph, "the original polygraph machine had nothing to do with lies and criminal investigation: it was actually a medical device" (Burbank, 2020). Scottish physician Dr. James Mackenzie developed the first ink-writing polygraph in the 1892 to monitor patients' heartbeats and study irregular heart rhythms. 

Mackenzie's invention used rubber tambour attached to a patients neck and wrist to record pulse patterns onto paper. At a time when physicians lacked effective methods for tracking heart activity, this technology represented an important breakthrough in medicine. Although the machine was eventually replaced by the electrocardiogram (EKG), its basic concept of recording physiological responses would later become the foundation for the modern polygraph. 

Later in 1895 Cesare Lombroso used the scientific instrument to measure physiological response. Lombroso modified an existing instrument called a hydrophygmograph and used it to measure physiological changes in the blood pressure and pulse of a suspect questioned by police. After Lombroso came William Moulton Marston, an American lawyer and psychologist credited with the invention of a basic form of the lie detector in 1915. Dr. Marston used a standard blood pressure cuff and a stethoscope to take intermittent readings of the systolic blood pressure of a subject during an interview to determine deception. 

The modern polygraph emerged in 1921 when John A. Larson, a Canadian psychologist working for the Berkeley Police Department built which many people consider the "original" lie detector. A device that measured several physiological responses at the same time. Using this polygraph Larson was the first person to measure and record continuously and at the same time the heart rate, blood pressure and respiratory changes of a person during interrogation. In 1939, Leonarde Keller patented what was considered the prototype of the modern polygraph (the Keeler Polygraph). Today Leonarde Keeler is known to be the father of the polygraph. 

Finally in 1993, the official entry of the polygraph into the modern age of technology happened when statisticians at John Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Maryland completed a software called Polyscore, which used a mathematical algorithm to analyze the polygraph data in order to estimate the probability level of lying or sincerity of a subject. This advancement helped standardize
the interpretation of polygraph results, reducing some of the subjectivity involved in human analysis and paving the way for the computerized polygraph systems that are commonly used today. 

How Does a Polygraph Work Today?

Opposite to popular belief, a polygraph doesn't actually detect lies. Alternatively, it measures physical responses that are linked to stress or anxiety. According to Jenifer González of the Law Library of Congress, "The modern polygraph records multiple physical measures simultaneously: respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and sweat gland activity" (González, 2022).

A modern polygraph examination generally follows three stages: 

Step 1: Pre-Test Interview 

The examiner starts by explaining the process and reviewing the questions, which then establishes a baseline for the individuals physiological responses.

Step 2: Polygraph Examination 

The examinee is connected to sensors that monitor breathing, blood pressure, heart rate, and perspiration while answering a series of questions. These questions often include relevant questions, comparison questions, and neutral questions. 

Step 3: Analysis and Post-Test Interview 

The examiner reviews the physiological data and looks for significant reactions to particular questions. If unusual responses are detected, the examiner may conduct a follow-up interview.  

Today, polygraphs are commonly used by federal agencies such as the FBI, CIA, and NSA during employment screening and security clearance investigations. González notes that "the FBI require all applicants to pass a polygraph exam as part of the employment process" (González, 2022). While the results are often used as investigative tools, they are rarely considered conclusive evidence 

How the Polygraph Changed Communication 

With its creation, the polygraph revolutionized communication by showing how technology can measure honesty and reliability. Prior to the polygraph, investigators depended primarily upon verbal statements, witness testimony, and confessions. The design of this new device gave way to additional forms of communication based on the honesty and reliability of individuals through the use of physiological data instead of spoken or written expression alone. 

The device also influenced how society views honesty. Many people began believing that machines could determine truth more accurately than humans. This perception helped make the polygraph a powerful psychological tool. In some cases, suspects confess before the examination even begins because they believe that machine will expose deception. 

The polygraph's influence extends beyond law enforcement. It become a fixture in television, movies, talk shows, and true crime programs. Even people with little knowledge of criminal justice recognize the phrase "lie detector test." Through popular culture, the polygraph helped shape public beliefs about truth, deception, and trust 

The Controversy Surrounding Polygraphs 

Despite their popularity, polygraphs remain highly controversial. One major issue is that they do not actually detect lies, they detect physiological reactions. A person may show signs of stress because they are nervous, frightened, embarrassed, or simply uncomfortable being questions. Likewise, a deceptive person may remain calm and produce few noticeable physiological changes. 

This debate has existed almost since the invention of the machine. In Frye v. United States (1923), one of the first major court cases involving the polygraph, the court ruled that the technology had not gained sufficient scientific acceptance to be admitted as evidence. Nearly a century later, courts remain skeptical. 

In United States v. Scheffer (1998), Justice Clarence Thomas wrote that "to this day, the scientific community remains extremely polarized about the reliability of polygraph techniques" (González, 2022). Because of this uneasiness, many courts either prohibit polygraph evidence or allow it only under very limited circumstances. 

Researchers John Synnott, David Dietzel, and Maria Loannou also found that while polygraph often perform better than chance, they are far from perfect. Their research suggests that polygraph examinations may be useful investigative tools but should not be viewed as definitive proof of truth or deception. 

Why the Polygraph Still Matters

More than 100 years after its invention, the polygraph remains one of the most recognizable communication technologies in the world. What began as a device for studying heart rhythms evolved into a tool used by law enforcement agencies, intelligence organizations, and employers. It changed the way investigators gather information, influenced government security practices, and shaped public perceptions of honesty. 

At the same time, the polygraph raises important questions about privacy, scientific reliability, and the role of technology in determining credibility. Should an employer or government agency be able to determine an individuals honesty using objective data from a device? Is it even possible for a device to determine whether someone is telling the truth? While the answers to these questions may be impossible to know for certain, the history of the polygraph demonstrates how communication technologies can significantly shape both communication and society. Even though the machine may not always be able to "detect lies" the way the polygraph has influenced law enforcement, public trust and modern communication is undeniable. 

Sources 

Burbank, T. (2020). The Origins of the Polygraph. Warren Anatomical Museum. https://countway.harvard.edu/news/origins-polygraph 

González, J. (2022). To Tell the Truth: A Short History of the Polygraph. Law Library of Congress https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2022/11/to-tell-the-truth-a-short-history-of-the-polygraph/ 

Kelley Polygraphe | Brief History of the Polygraph. (n.d.) http://www.kellypolygraphe.com/polygraph-history.php

Synnott, J., Dietzel, D., & Loannou, M. (2015). A Review of the Polygraph: History, Methodology and Current Status. Crime Psychology Review. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23744006.2015.1060080#d1e451

Blog Post #3: Why Free Expression Matters

When most people think about the First Amendment, they think about the right to speak freely or criticise the government. Freedom of expression is important, but in studying the Eight Values of Free Expression, I saw it has a larger meaning in American society. The value that resonated most with me was Individual Self-Fulfillment, although I also found strong connections to the Marketplace of Ideas and Protect Dissent. These theories help to explain why free expression is so important in our everyday lives, particularly in a world of social media and digital communication. 

C. Edwin Baker's theory of Individual Self-Fulfillment argues that freedom of expression allows individuals to grow into their identities, express their beliefs, and exercise personal autonomy. Of all the theories, this one is most personal for me. As a college student, I am constantly learning more about who I am, what I believe, and what I want to do in the future. Whether it is pursuing a Criminal Justice degree on the Pre-Law track, studying Italian culture and language, participating in organizations on campus, or expressing myself through my interest in the arts, I am using free expression to shape my identity. 

Social media is one of the best modern examples of Individual Self-Fulfillment. According to the Pew Research Center, social media has become one of the primary ways people consume news and engage with public discussions. TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube have allowed millions of people to make their creativity, opinions, talents, and experiences visible and be shared with others. Though social media has its drawbacks, it also allows us to connect with people with shared interests.  As someone who enjoys following true crime cases, legal issues, and the arts as a whole, I have been able to connect with creators who discuss all of these interests in ways that make complex topics more accessible and easy to understand. Through these discussions, people are not only sharing information but also expressing who they are and what matters to them. 

Another value that I find important is the Marketplace of Ideas, first proposed by John Milton in Aeropagitica. Milton believed that truth emerges when different ideas compete freely in public debate. This theory is valid today because we are constantly hearing different points of view online. Whether one is discussing politics, criminal justice reform, court decisions, or even current events, the ability to hear and understand perspectives other than our own allows individuals to assess evidence given and form our own ideas. Although misinformation can sometimes spread online, I do still believe that society benefits from an open discussion rather than allowing a very small group of people to decide what everyone else is allowed to see or hear. 

The importance of protecting open discussion can be seen in ongoing conversations surrounding freedom of expression in the media. The First Amendment Encyclopedia demonstrates that the Marketplace of Ideas remains one of the most influential justifications for protecting speech because it inspires American citizens to actively engage with varying viewpoints rather than just accepting information at face value.  In a way, the Marketplace of Ideas theory wants us to think critically instead of allowing other people to think for us.

This idea carefully connects to what we have discussed in class pertaining to the role of the press and freedom of speech when it comes to holding institutions accountable. As someone whose interests lie in law,  I believe Protecting Dissent is extremely important because it encourages people to question authority and advocate for the things they believe are right. One example is the Innocence Project, which uses advocacy, public awareness movements, and legal action to reveal wrongful convictions and flaws within the criminal justice system. Without the freedom to defy government decisions and publicly criticise institutions, many wrongdoings would remain hidden. 

Current events also highlight how these theories continue to come into play today. Debates about content restrictions on social media platforms raise important questions about being able to balance free expression with concerns about wrong information and toxic content. The New York Times regularly covers these debates and the issues they present for a democratic society.  These debates highlight the continuous tension between protecting speech and protecting society. Despite where one stands on these issues, the conversation itself demonstrates the significance of free expression in a democratic society. 

Finally, Individual Self-Fulfillment is prominent because it highlights that free expression is about more than just politics or government. It is all about allowing people to discover who they are, share their experiences, and connect with other like-minded people. Combined with the Marketplace of Ideas and Protect Dissent, it aids the creation of a society where individuals can grow, challenge other beliefs, and contribute to important conversations. In a society where it is shaped by technology and social media, these values remain just as important today as they were when the First Amendment was first introduced. Free expression doesn't just protect our right to speech, but it also helps us become who we are. 

Blog Post #2: The Supreme Court's Influence on American Democracy

The United States Supreme Court consists of nine justices and is considered one of the most powerful judicial bodies in the world. Prior to watching the videos, I had the understanding that the Court interprets the Constitution and decides important legal disputes. However, I learned that the Court's true power is not founded solely on the Constitution. As the Videos explained, its legitimacy comes from the Constitution, but its power essentially resides in the faith and trust of the American people. This idea changed the way I thought about the Supreme Court and helped me better understand its true role in the American government. 

One thing I learned that I did not previously know was how much the Court had transformed throughout history. The Videos talked about how in 1801, the Supreme Court had moved into temporary quarters in the unfinished Capitol building and how Chief Justice John Marshall altered the Court into being a co-equal branch of the government through the landmark case Marbury v. Madison. By instituting judicial review, the Court declared the authority to strike down acts of Congress that violated the Constitution. I was also extremely interested in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case. A decision that ruled Congress could not ban slavery and that African Americans could never be considered citizens. The video described this ruling as the Court's "great self-inflicted wound." This shows how even the Supreme Court can damage its own credibility. 

The most important takeaway from the video is the importance of public trust. Justice Stephen Breyer stated, "once confirmed, all of us are primarily responsible to the law and to this institution and to our own conscience." The Supreme Court has no protection and no ability to truly enforce its own decisions. Instead, as Justice David Souter illustrated: "The power of the Court is the power of trust earned, the trust of the American people." Without that sense of trust, then the Court's authority would be weakened. 

One of the most surprising things I learned was how the justices truly make decisions. Oral arguments are not just presentations by attorneys. Justice Anthony Kennedy explained that the court is essentially "having a conversation with itself through the intermediary of the attorney." I was amazed to learn how much discussion, revision, compromise, and negotiation actually happens prior to an opinion being finalized. Opinions may be rewritten over and over again, and justices ever so often change their votes during the lengthy process. 

Overall, these videos changed the way I thought about the Supreme Court. I formerly viewed it as a group of judges voting on cases, but in reality it is an institution that constantly juggles history, law, precedent, and public trust. The Supreme Court's decisions affect everything ranging from civil rights to criminal procedures, and its influence expands far beyond the courtroom. Most of all, I walked away with a better understanding of the Supreme Court as well as a larger appreciation for the responsibility placed upon the justices and the importance of upholding public confidence in the rule of law. 

Blog Post #1: My Top Five Sources of News and Information

1. The New York Times 

One of my favorite sources of news is The New York Times because it provides detailed coverage on both national and international events. As a Criminal Justice major on the Pre-Law track, I enjoy reading
articles about major court cases, criminal investigations and legal developments. I also appreciate its coverage of arts and culture, especially stores about museums, theater and international events. since I am also studying Italian, I enjoy reading about European politics and cultural issues that help me better understand the world beyond the United States. I would recommend The New York Times to anyone who wants well researched journalism that goes beyond the headlines. 

 2. TikTok 

One of the tools that I often use to learn about news and current events is TikTok. I often find videos about true crime, which is a genre I love, consisting of body camera footage, creators discussing criminal cases, trials and the cases still being investigated. I also like to watch videos that contain information about politics, social movements and breaking news. I find that the topics usually present are explained in a simplified and understandable way. While TikTok is not the most reliable sources to deeply understand a topic, it is always important to fact check the information with more trustworthy news outlets before forming an opinion. I would recommend TikTok as a tool for discovering topics that inspire further research. 

3. Spotify Podcast

Podcast are one of my favorite ways to stay informed because I can listen while driving, while on a walk or hike, or doing homework. through Spotify, I follow podcast that mostly discuss true crime events.
podcasts often allow experts and journalist to have longer conversations than traditional news articles, which can provide additional insight into important topics. I would recommend podcast because they making learning about interesting topics convenient and engaging. 

4. Associated Press (AP News) 

The Associated Press (AP) is one of the most reliable sources for news and information because it focuses on breaking news and fact based coverage. other media companies and organizations that publish news and information typically use associated press news, which makes it a widely used source for current information. AP News appeals to me because most of their news articles are direct and factual without heavy opinionated views and comments. I would highly recommend AP News to anyone who wants quick yet reliable information on current events around the world. 

5.  Instagram 

Instagram is one of the main ways I stay informed about current events, trends, and topics that matter to me. many news organization, journalist and public figures post updates directly on the platform, making it easy to quickly learn about breaking news. I like instagram because it provides information in a fast and
visually engaging format. however, I always make sure to verify information by checking the original source or reading additional articles before accepting it as a fact. I would recommend Instagram as a starting point for discovering news, but not as the only source of information.